I’m slouching over my desk, smartphone in hand, furiously tapping at the screen. In a game that looks straight out of a 1980s Atari console, I’m trying to direct little multicolored trains to stations of the same color by selecting the tracks as fast as I can. This task is supposed to assess my attention skills. I don’t do well. Luckily for me, the app promises I can improve with training, for as little as $11.99 per month.
I’m not the only one who wants to enhance my mental sharpness and keep my brain in good shape by spending some time with screens. Lately, there has been a growing appeal towards the concept that online games have the ability to improve cognitive flexibility, leading to the emergence of a massive brain training industry valued at over $6 billion. This industry is projected to grow to a whopping $44 billion by 2030, according to a 2022 market research report by InsightAce Analytic. Nowadays, new applications are popping up faster than zombies in shooter games, all promising to enhance your problem-solving skills, memory, and processing speed. In a nutshell, these apps claim to make you smarter, more perceptive, and mentally agile. All you need to do is set aside a few minutes each day to solve basic puzzles and memory games, such as matching cards, arranging mosaic tiles, or cracking math equations.
At least, that’s the idea. Many developers of brain-training apps say that their products are firmly rooted in science. BrainHQ, for example, offers 29 online exercises “built on serious science” and asserts that its cognitive benefits are proven in at least 100 published studies. Another app, HAPPYneuron, states it’s “a part of therapy for a variety of medical conditions,” listing a wide range of issues, from healthy aging and Alzheimer’s disease to stroke and multiple sclerosis — even distinct psychiatric conditions like schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and depression. Since its launch in 2007, more than 100 million people worldwide have used Lumosity, which claims to offer “statistically significant improvements” for a host of cognitive assessments. And many people find those claims compelling; a survey of over 3,000 Americans found that a majority believe brain-training apps help them with thinking, attention and memory, according to a paper published in Frontiers in Human Neuroscience in 2016.
However, research reveals a more intricate scenario. According to Daniel Simons, an experimental psychologist at the University of Illinois, many brain training companies lack substantial evidence supporting the practical benefits of their programs. Simons, along with a team of experts, conducted an extensive review of scientific studies on brain-training apps, and their findings align with several other meta-analyses and reviews. In 2022, a review stated that while online brain training may offer amusement, there is limited proof of its impact on everyday functioning. Fernand Gobet, a cognitive scientist at the London School of Economics and Political Science, who has authored multiple meta-analyses on cognitive training, boldly asserts that he is highly confident in the absence of any effect.
Although there is potential to enhance our cognitive abilities, numerous studies investigating brain-training applications have failed to demonstrate their effectiveness in significantly improving our brain power. Experts caution that the research conducted on these apps is often flawed, plagued by issues like using small sample sizes and selectively choosing evidence. If you genuinely desire a more powerful and sharper mind, there may be more effective approaches to exercise and strengthen your mental faculties.
Throughout history, humans have always been fascinated by the concept of training their brains. From ancient times to the present day, we have continuously sought ways to improve our cognitive abilities. Even the great philosopher Plato recognized the benefits of practicing arithmetic for enhancing overall intelligence. In the early Middle Ages, brain teasers compiled by Alcuin of York, an Anglo-Saxon scholar, were utilized to sharpen young minds. Perhaps you’ve come across one of these puzzles, such as the challenge of safely transporting a wolf, a goat, and a cabbage across a river using only one boat. In the early 20th century, commercial brain training became more accessible with the introduction of Pelmanism, a program consisting of a booklet and a card game that attracted over half a million enthusiasts. Our desire to develop our mental capabilities has deep historical roots, demonstrating our persistent pursuit of intellectual growth.
Modern science shows that it is indeed possible to boost brain power. “You can improve it in young children, you can improve it in octogenarians. It seems to be possible at every age,” says Adele Diamond, neuroscientist at the University of British Columbia. The “it” in question is executive function — a group of interrelated, higher-level processes that enable us to plan, focus our attention, achieve our goals and more. (See sidebar on page 53.) Taken together, “executive functions are important for mental and physical health, for doing well in school and on the job, for getting along with others and having marital harmony,” says Diamond. “It’s hard to think of any aspect of life that executive functions are not important for.”
Researchers wanted to find out if they could improve certain skills by using online games. They discovered that playing a simple computer game could enhance working memory in both children with ADHD and in adults without any health problems. After this discovery, many more experiments were conducted and a wide range of commercial games became available.
Certainly, more is not always better when it comes to research. The 2002 study was not without its flaws, primarily due to its small scale. With only 14 children and four adults included in the study, it becomes prone to misleading results, as noted by Simons. In their 2016 analysis of brain-training app studies, Simons and his team highlighted numerous concerns related to the design and methodology, extensively discussing the problems that plague this area of research.
Besides the limited size of the samples, another concern arises due to the influence of expectation bias. According to Simons, in drug studies where participants are unaware of whether they are receiving the actual drug or a placebo, their expectations of improvement remain the same. However, in the majority of brain training studies, people are informed about what they are practicing and therefore hold certain predictions about which areas will show improvement and which won’t. Consequently, they may unknowingly report improvements in those specific aspects they believe should get better.
In many studies conducted on brain-training applications, the focus is primarily on self-evaluations of real-life improvements. This means that participants are asked to assess whether they believe their memory or attention has been enhanced. However, a meta-analysis of studies conducted in 2022, which examined brain training programs such as BrainGymmer, BrainHQ, CogMed, and Lumosity, revealed that while some participants reported positive effects, most of these benefits disappeared when objective measures such as cognitive tests were taken into consideration. Gobet, in his 2023 review published in Perspectives on Psychological Science, also highlights two main issues plaguing research on cognitive training – the placebo effect and the reliance on self-evaluations.
Let’s talk about cherry-picking evidence, a potential pitfall when conducting a study on a cognitive-training app. Picture this: your enthusiastic volunteers diligently use the app and then go through a series of tests to measure their working memory, attention, and even general intelligence. However, to your surprise, the results show no significant improvements, except for a slight increase in their processing speed. Now, here’s where things get tricky. Instead of being transparent and mentioning the other less favorable outcomes, you decide to publish a scientific article solely focusing on the speed of processing. It turns out, Professor Simons reveals that this type of underreporting in cognitive training research might actually be a widespread occurrence. He points out that many of these studies have not openly shared all their data or experimental materials. Moreover, when we delve into basic statistics, we find that some of these seemingly positive outcomes may actually be random and unrelated to the effectiveness of the training itself. Quite perplexing, isn’t it?
According to certain individuals from brain training organizations, the effectiveness of brain-training programs is often inconsistent, creating a negative perception of all such products and clouding the true understanding. To put it in perspective, one could compare it to categorizing snake oil along with antibiotics and concluding that none of them work, therefore disregarding the treatment of tuberculosis. Henry Mahncke, the CEO of Posit Science, aptly expressed this sentiment. Nevertheless, a review conducted in 2017 revealed that Posit Science’s programs, like BrainHQ, showcased the most reliable evidence of their ability to potentially reduce the risk of cognitive decline in older individuals.
However, numerous studies that developers put forward as evidence that their products enhance cognitive performance share a common characteristic: they have either received direct funding from app developers or have been carried out by researchers who have affiliations with them. The fact that the sponsoring company has a vested interest in the results should raise some concerns, according to Simons. It is important to approach these studies with a degree of skepticism.
It’s not surprising that brain training companies would be interested in supporting research to prove the effectiveness of their products. However, previous research in the pharmaceutical and nutrition sectors has shown that studies funded by these industries tend to have results that favor the sponsor, which is known as the funding effect. For instance, an examination of 206 journal articles related to nutrition found that sponsored papers were four to eight times more likely to have outcomes that were favorable to the sponsor compared to articles that were not sponsored. This highlights the potential bias that can arise when there is financial involvement from the industry being studied.
Brain-training apps face a significant challenge when it comes to research findings – the absence of what scientists refer to as “far transfer.” Essentially, this means that the improvements shown in these apps do not necessarily translate into real-life results. Thomas Redick, a cognitive psychologist at Purdue University, emphasizes that practicing something repeatedly can certainly enhance one’s skill in that specific area, which is generally agreed upon. However, where skepticism arises, and not just from Redick, is in the broader claims made by these apps, such as being an alternative treatment for ADHD or boosting IQ. It’s crucial to question these claims and consider the actual impact beyond the virtual setting.
If I practice the train exercise frequently, it’s highly likely that I will improve my performance in that specific game. However, it’s questionable whether playing the game will enhance my ability to multitask while doing chores, for example. A study conducted in 2018 actually found that participants who trained on an online memory game showed improvement in that particular game, but their scores on a different memory test were similar to those of a control group. App developers often make grand claims about the benefits of their games, such as improving your math skills, increasing intelligence, or even reducing the risk of Alzheimer’s, but these claims require substantial evidence to support them. Unfortunately, when all the studies on the subject are analyzed, there is a lack of strong evidence or any evidence at all.
For more than a hundred years, scientists have been grappling with the perplexing issue of far transfer. Way back in 1906, an American psychologist named Edward Thorndike conducted some fascinating experiments that shed light on the matter. He discovered that students who practiced estimating the area of rectangles improved their skills in that particular area. However, the interesting thing was that this improvement didn’t extend to estimating the areas of other shapes, such as triangles. It’s like trying to transfer knowledge from one completely different realm to another – it’s not easy, and the further apart the realms are, the more challenging it becomes. But fear not, dear reader, for there are other scientifically proven methods to enhance our mental abilities in day-to-day life. And the best part? You don’t even need a smartphone for these brain-boosting techniques!
When it comes to ideas and perspectives, diversity is key. Each individual has their own unique way of thinking and looking at the world. This is what adds depth and richness to our conversations and interactions. Just think about it – if everyone had the exact same ideas and perspectives, how boring would that be? It’s like having a puzzle with only one piece – it’s flat and lacks dimension. But when different ideas and perspectives come together, it’s like adding more pieces to the puzzle. Suddenly, it becomes intriguing and vibrant, with various colors and shapes intermingling. So, let’s embrace the beauty of diversity and welcome different ideas and perspectives with open arms.
According to experts such as Diamond, the path to enhancing our cognitive abilities lies in engaging in real-life situations. In a recent comprehensive analysis conducted by Diamond and her partner, they discovered that practices like tai chi and taekwondo hold immense potential in boosting our mental agility. Not only are these activities effective in alleviating stress, which we know can significantly hinder our executive function, but they also directly train certain cognitive functions. For instance, martial arts can sharpen inhibitory control skills, akin to patiently biding one’s time for the opportune moment to strike your adversary.
Additional research has indicated that engaging in regular exercise, quitting smoking, and adopting healthy sleeping patterns can have a positive impact on executive function. A team of experts from the prestigious University of Oxford delved into the extensive biomedical data of nearly 500,000 individuals from the United Kingdom. Their findings revealed a strong correlation between sleeping for a duration of six to eight hours per night and increased gray matter volume in various regions of the brain. Notably, these areas include the orbitofrontal cortex, vital for learning and decision-making, and the hippocampus, a key player in memory formation. This enlightening study highlights the importance of maintaining a balanced lifestyle and prioritizing quality sleep for optimal cognitive functioning.
In addition to making small changes in your daily routine, immersing yourself in activities and hobbies that ignite your passion can prove to be the most effective way to maintain mental acuity. Whether it’s nurturing a garden, experimenting with new recipes in the kitchen, or dedicating your time to volunteer work, these pursuits can have a profound impact on your cognitive abilities. Moreover, recent studies have shown that engaging in dance and music can also offer cognitive benefits. For instance, a study conducted in 2017 investigated the effects of a music education program implemented in Venezuela. The findings revealed that children who took part in the program experienced significant improvements in executive function, as well as notable enhancements in their standardized test scores and math grades. The program not only taught them how to play a musical instrument but also provided opportunities to practice with a school orchestra.
According to Diamond, the secret to a mind-enhancing hobby is to choose something that pushes your limits. If you repeatedly do the same task, you won’t be engaging your higher cognitive functions. Therefore, it’s crucial to select an activity that requires active thinking rather than something that can be done automatically.
The idea of embracing new and challenging experiences, like traveling and immersing ourselves in different cultures, can actually contribute to the overall health of our brains. A study conducted in Taiwan in 2014 discovered that children who are raised in multicultural families tend to perform better than children from monocultural backgrounds when it comes to tests assessing creativity and problem-solving skills. Additionally, research indicates that individuals who have spent some time living abroad demonstrate higher levels of cognitive flexibility. These findings suggest that exploring diverse environments and engaging in multicultural experiences can have a positive impact on our cognitive abilities.
However, a mere trip to Cancun to enjoy a week of relaxation under the warm sun and on the sandy beaches will not significantly alter the functioning of your brain. If you truly desire to experience the intellectual advantages that come with embracing different cultures, you must actively push yourself to interact with them. According to William Maddux, a respected professor of organizational behavior at the University of North Carolina, exposing yourself to diverse ideas, perspectives, and alternative ways of perceiving the world has a profound impact on the complexity and development of your brain. So, if you’re seeking to expand your cognitive abilities, it’s essential to step out of your comfort zone and engage wholeheartedly with other cultures.
On the flip side, Simons believes that brain-training apps don’t have any inherent flaws or dangers. However, he emphasizes the fact that these apps require both your money and time investment. This raises the question of whether it’s worth the opportunity cost of playing a game instead of engaging in other meaningful activities. So, are these apps truly worth it?
We should take developers’ claims with a pinch of salt. Back in 2016, Lumosity had to cough up $2 million to settle deceptive advertising charges by the Federal Trade Commission. They were caught making baseless assertions about how their games can supercharge work performance and slow down cognitive decline. It goes to show that not every bold claim holds up under scrutiny.
With 5.8 million Americans now living with Alzheimer’s disease, any potential tool in our arsenal to fight mental decline is certainly welcome — even if its effects are limited to training rather narrow skills.
Let’s dive into the fascinating world of executive functions! These are cognitive abilities that are absolutely essential for our brains to function effectively. When we talk about executive functions, we’re referring to a variety of skills that help us with things like planning, problem-solving, and self-control. They’re like the commanders of our brain, helping us stay organized and make decisions. Just think of them as the CEOs of our minds, keeping everything running smoothly and efficiently. But what exactly do these executive functions entail? Well, they encompass a range of abilities, including working memory, attention control, and cognitive flexibility. Working memory allows us to hold and manipulate information in our minds, while attention control helps us stay focused on the task at hand. Cognitive flexibility, on the other hand, enables us to adapt to new situations and switch between different tasks. Together, these executive functions play a crucial role in our daily lives, helping us navigate through the complex and ever-changing world around us. So, let’s delve deeper into the intricacies of executive functions and discover the fascinating ways they shape our thoughts and actions.
Imagine having your own personal executive overseeing your brain, ensuring that all of your mental processes and behaviors are coordinated and in control. This is essentially what executive functions are – a collection of cognitive abilities and mental skills that help regulate and manage other aspects of your thinking. Just like a CEO overseeing various departments in a company, or an air traffic control system expertly guiding planes on different runways without any mishaps, executive functions assist you in planning ahead, accomplishing objectives, practicing self-restraint, adhering to instructions, and maintaining focus, among other things. You utilize these invaluable skills every single day without even realizing it.
Want to know the secret sauce to rocking your everyday life? Well, look no further because I’m about to spill the beans on the three essential executive functions that will make you a success and help you thrive. These bad boys are the keys to your personal triumph and all-around awesomeness. So buckle up and let’s dive into this flavorful adventure!
Cognitive flexibility, often referred to as thinking outside the box, involves the skill of approaching problems from various perspectives and adjusting one’s behavior and thought processes to fit new and unfamiliar situations. It’s like having the ability to see things from multiple angles and then being able to adapt accordingly. In simpler terms, it means being open-minded and creative when faced with challenges, allowing you to come up with innovative solutions. So, if cognitive flexibility were a superhero power, it would be the ability to seamlessly switch between different lenses, allowing you to tackle problems in the most effective and efficient way possible.
Inhibitory control, also known as self-control, is a crucial cognitive skill that helps us stay focused, avoid distractions, and resist the urge to act on impulses without thinking. Think of it like hitting the pause button before reacting. It’s like having a mental barrier that allows us to consider our actions carefully instead of acting on instinct. This executive function helps us make wise decisions by weighing the consequences before making a move. So, the next time you find yourself tempted by a distraction or acting impulsively, remember to activate your inhibitory control and think before you leap.
Imagine your brain as a virtual sticky note, keeping important information at hand without letting it slip away. This cognitive ability is known as working memory, and it plays a crucial role in various mental tasks, including tackling complex math problems. It’s like having a mental notepad that allows you to hold and manipulate information, ensuring you can solve problems and navigate daily challenges effectively. Working memory is key to staying organized and focused, providing you with the mental toolkit necessary to tackle various cognitive tasks. So the next time you find yourself engrossed in a math problem, remember that your brain is acting as its very own sticky note, ensuring you can keep track of vital information and calculate your way to success.